Slur & Phrase :: In lesson 4 we discussed the way in which beats can vary in strength and how, through a suitable choice of time signature, the composer can make clear the rhythmic structure, formed by a particular pattern of strong, medium and weak beats. On many musical instruments there are limits to the strength of a beat, if all one can do is to blow, bang or scrape more or less enthusiastically. Wind-instruments blown hard play sharp and the tone is coarsened. The same instruments blown too gently will tend to play flat or not at all. However, a performance in which all the notes are equally loud or soft is immeasurably duller than one where there is dynamic variety. The dynamic detail can be in the note's strength when it starts, whether or not it is preceded or followed by a silence, the note's length and the mean strength of the note while it sounds. All these can be determined with suitable notation and we will look at each of these in turn. Music, like written prose, tends to be made up of short sequences we call phrases. Consider Swift's 'A satirical Elegy on the Death of a late Famous General' (1772) - actually, on the death of Marlborough, the victor at Blenheim - in which each line is a single phrase. But what of what, his friends may say, He had those honours in his day, True to his profit and his pride, He made them weep before he dy'd. Each line expresses a single idea which is the fundamental characteristic of a phrase. Of course, the choice of phrase length is not 'set in stone'. One might 'feel' that a more natural phrase length here is the pairing of lines (1 with 2, 3 with 4). This freedom to feel poetry in various different ways occurs too in music and phrasing is a matter best left to the performer to communicate to the listener as he (or she) thinks best. We will return to this point when discussing the setting of words to music where the phrasing of the words tends to find its mirror in the shaping of the musical line. The desire of editors and composers to make their intentions clear down to the very last detail has meant that phrasing is shown through the use of large sweeping 'slur-like' lines called 'phrase marks'. Slurs, which tend to embrace a smaller number of notes, help to shape the musical line even within broader phrasing marks and performers must be able to distinguish between them. On wind instruments, all the notes under the slur except for the first, are untongued, the breath flowing continuously while the fingers move. On stringed instruments, the equivalent effect is achieved by using a single sweep of the bow for each slur or phrase. On keyboard instruments the notes are played legato (smoothly) and with a light touch. The slur removes the attack from the start of each note under it except for the first so providing a contrast in strength, a dynamic variety, between the first and the later notes. If slurring is to be effective, or indeed a distinction made between different phrases, the performer must avoid playing unslurred notes too smoothly. Pre-nineteenth century music was played in a more detached manner than we associate, say, with the repertoire of the late-Romantic. The advantages of a detached manner when playing in a large acoustically resonant building become clear. When the notes 'ring on' around the room, the harmonies overlap instead of flowing neatly one into the other. Slurring, in such surroundings, would obsure the line, and so the performer has to be able to adjust the performance to the demands made by the surroundings by ignoring slur and phrase marks that may have become redundant. Slurs are distinguishable from ties, which we met in lesson 2, because ties only link together notes of identical pitch (e.g. B to B) while slurs never link together notes of identical pitch. Tenuto & Staccato :: The idea that music can be 'smoothed out' using slurs can be reduced to just a single note, which if normally played in a detached manner, would now need to be held for its full written value. This mark, a small horizontal line over or below the note head, is called a tenuto mark. If the use of tenuto is extended the composer may place the word tenuto in the score rather than pedantically marking every note. The reverse, i.e. the shortening of a note by replacing part of its time value with a period of silence, is called staccato, a sign introduced into music in the late eighteenth century. This is marked with a small dot (for staccato) or a horizontal line and dot (for mezzo staccato), or a single 'quotation mark' or 'wedge' (for staccatissimo). Staccato means no more than sustaining the note, so marked, for only half its written length, replacing the other half with a period of silence. Some players mistakenly strengthen the shorter note in the belief that staccato is used to make a note rhythmically 'stronger' when it is actually used to make it 'weaker'. Mezzo staccato means hold the note for three quarters of its time value, while staccatissimo means hold the note for one quarter of its time value. We give a number of examples below. Slurs & Staccato :: When used under a slur, the staccato mark will have a slightly modified effect depending on the 'weight' of the note within the slur were it to have no staccato mark. If a note is slurred in pairs, the effect is to sustain the first but slightly lift the second. The staccato mark, therefore, on either or both, must be seen to modify this relationship under the slur, so that if both carry staccato marks, the first note remains slightly longer than the second but the notes are now slightly detached from each other, the slur is therefore 'broken'. The way a staccato mark under a slur is realised will also depend on the instrument for which the instruction refers. On a piano the staccato under a slur is a portato where the individual notes sound for three-quarters of their written duration. On a string instrument the staccato mark under a slur means detach the notes on a single stroke of the bow whether upstroke or downstroke. The bow does not change direction for the duration of the slur. If the music is from the baroque period and the piece is slow and in a French style where you might expected to play the shortest notes, say the quavers, inégal then if some quavers have staccato marks over them and a slur above the staccato marks then those quavers are to be played evenly, i.e. égal. See lesson 20 for more information about égal and inégal. Variety of Accents :: An accent serves various purposes; as a stress or special emphasis on a beat to mark its position in the bar; a mark in the written music indicating an accent of which there are five basic types: staccato accents, staccatissimo accents, normal accents, strong accents, and legato accents with several combinations possible; the principle of regularly recurring stresses which serve to give rhythm to the music. Percussive Accents (1-4) Pressure Accent (5) Staccato Staccatissimo Strong Accent Marcato Normal Accent Legato Accent Tenuto Light Accents Strong Accent Medium Accents Accent Name Description Staccato Accent short and separated from the following note Staccatissimo Accent an exaggerated short duration of the note Strong Accent generally meant for attacks at loud dynamic levels of forte or louder Normal Accent moderately sharp attack that can be used at any dynamic level from pianissimo to fortissimo Legato Accent this can be used at any dynamic level and is a slight stress without a noticable attack and held to the full duration of the note Combined Accents (1-8) Strong & Staccato Strong & Legato Strong & Staccatissimo Legato & Staccato Legato & Staccatissimo Normal & Staccato Normal & Legato Normal & Staccatissimo Strong Accents Medium Accents Accent Name Description Strong & Staccato Accents very percussive and shorter duration than notated Strong & Legato Accents very percussive while retaining full duration of notation Strong & Staccatissimo Accents strongest percussive attack possible with an exaggerated short duration Legato & Staccato Accents stressed and moderately short, separated from next note Legato and Staccatissimo stressed and quite short Normal & Staccato Accents moderately percussive and short Normal & Legato Accents moderately percussive with full note duration Normal & Staccatissimo Accents moderately percussive with short note duration Articulation on Wind Instruments :: We summarise below information about articulation and accent as applied to wind instruments. Woodwind articulation Legato usually marked by a slur, the first note only will be tongued and the remainder of the phrase in play under a continuous stream of breath Soft or tongued legato every note is lightly tongued, with a softer syllable (du instead of tu) Staccato notes played half their written length, every note started and stopped by the tongue Double tonguing fast alternating syllables, usually tu and ku Triple tonguing like double tonguing but alternating tu, ku and tu Flutter tongue a vibration of the tongue, as if rolling the syllable rrrr Articulation on Stringed Instruments :: We summarise below information about articulation and accent as applied to stringed instruments. String players will apply bowing marks to indicate where the bow is to move up or down. The "up-bow" mark looks like a V and the "down-bow" mark like a square missing its bottom side. The modern bow-hold has the bow held between the tips of the fingers and thumb with the palm of the hand facing down towards the floor. "Up" means start at the tip. "Down" means start at the frog which is where your right hand is. On most modern stringed instruments the "down-bow" is stronger than the "up-bow", this due mainly to the greater weight or downward force the player can apply with the bow to the string with the heel (near the frog) as opposed to the tip. However, on the viol, where the bow is held differently, effectively lying in the palm of the hand with the palm facing upwards, the "up-bow" is stronger than the "down-bow" and the bow action will be reversed. The freedom to bow without a change in direction, for example on long sustained notes, is more limited on the cello and double-bass than on the violin or viola because cello and double-bass bows are shorter. Where many notes are played under a single bow stroke, the player will mark the part with a slur. Because the "up" and "down" strokes have different strengths, it is natural to want to use the stronger stroke for strong beats and the weaker stroke for weaker beats. On modern stringed instruments, the performer naturally plays an upbeat with an "up-bow" unless indicated otherwise. On the viol, the same upbeat would be played with a "down-bow". String players use a number of bowing terms which we list below. Bowing Terms Description On-the-string Bowings Détaché separate bows for each note. This type of bowing is used when there are no slur markings over the notes Legato player plays smoothly according to bowings indicated by the slur marks Martelé (Fr.); Martellato (It.); Marcato (It.) notes are played with accented force, literally “hammered”. It indicates a fast, well-articulated, heavy, separate stroke, resembling a sforzando, or pressed accent. The indication for this may be dots, accents, arrowhead accents, or marks Louré (or Portato, piqué) bow motion is legato, but with slight separation of the notes. It is performed with several notes in one bow direction, each note receiving a gentle “push” to separate it Staccato (each note is separated) 1. separate bow - notes are played separated and with separate bows for each note 2. slurred - consecutive notes are played separated, but with one bow direction Off-the-string Bowings Spiccato (or saltando) 1. deliberate - usually in slow passages, player bounces the bow in a deliberate manner to give an interesting effect 2. spontaneous - (sautillé). The speed of the passage causes the player to instinctively create a bouncing motion with the bow. Sometimes described as “an uncontrolled spiccato” 3. slurred spiccato (staccato volante, flying staccato) - similar to slurred staccato except that the bow bounces on the string to create the separation of the pitches. Instead of reversing direction for each note as in ordinary spiccato, the bow picks up a series of short notes, usually on an up-bow Jeté (ricochet) the bouncing motion of the bow creates 2 to 6 or even more rapid notes. This is usually with a downward bow motion, but up-bows are occasionally used as well. The cello and double bass can only execute about 3 consecutive notes, maybe 4, because of the shorter bow that is used. Dot & Wedge in Clavichord Music :: Paul Simmonds, the English clavichordist, wrote to the Clavichord Discussion List about the use of the 'dot' and the 'wedge' in clavichord playing: "D.G. Türk's 'Clavierschule' is a good source for clear explanations. He sometimes takes CPE to task for being unclear. There is an English translation by Raymond Haggh, University of Nebraska Press, 1982, which I fear is out of print, but libraries should have it, or you may be able to get a second hand copy. A facsimile is available from Bärenreiter if your German is up to it. Briefly, Türk says that there is little difference between the dot and the wedge, except that 'some would like to indicate by the stroke that a shorter staccato be played than that indicated by the dot'. Türk says that an accentis not implied by this, but that one hears all detached notes played loudlyby some players. I still wonder about Müthel's use of the wedge, as he often uses it on the first note of a slurred group (if anyone has any thoughts on this I would like to hear them - maybe Müthel did imply an accent with his use of the wedge). E.W. Wolf (1785) is also a good source for information on détaché, agreeing by and large with Türk (English translation by Christopher Hogwood in CPEBach Studies, ed. Stephen Clark, Clarenden Press 1988). Wolf also makes no distinction between the dot and the dash and describes in detail how and where the détaché should be performed. This source is in general an excellent short guide to 18th century clavichord playing. American colleagues could take a look at the original in the Library of Congress. Marpurg also gives either the dot or wedge for staccato (Abstossen) making no apparent distinction between the two." Pedalling on the Piano :: C.P.E. Bach commented that if his lessons published in his Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (Berlin, 1753) were to be played on a harpsichord with more than one keyboard, "one keeps to one manual for such changes of forte and piano as occur on single notes; one changes manual only when entire passages are differentiated by forte and piano. The discomfort is not present at the clavichord; on that instrument one can express all sorts of forte and piano as clearly and purely as on just about any other instrument." The problem of fixed dynamics on the harpsichord, the principal domestic keyboard instrument, became even greater as the idea of dynamic expression or Affekt in music became increasingly important in music of the late baroque. For some early keyboard makers, the solution lay in changing the material of the plectrum, that part of the harpsichord directly in contact with the string. M. Trouflaut writing in 1773 describes Pascal Taskin's invention, the peau de buffle. "A thousand means of enlarging, embellishing and improving harpsochords were thought up, but no one reached the goal towards which they could have striven, namely, to vary the tone as nature and taste suggest to those of a delicate ear and a sensitive hearing ... Through his insight, M. Paschal Taskin surmounted the difficulties which had stood in the way of his predecessors ... Of the three rows of jacks in a harpsichord he chose one in which he used pieces of buffalo leather as plectra ... The effect of the leather on the strings of the instrument was to create sensuous, velvety sounds. These one could vary at will by exerting more or less pressure at the keyboard, obtaining rich, full and soothing sounds .... Does one require passionate, tender or dying sounds? The buffle obeys the pressure of the finger; it no longer plucks but caresses the string. The touch, just the touch of the clavecinist is enough to create these charming shadings without changing either keyboard or stop ... I dare to add with confidence that the harpsichord with the peau de buffle is very much superior to the Piano-forte." The Piano-forte moved on, picking up ideas from other instruments on the way. Two German makers, Franz Jakob Späth (died 1752) and his son-in-law Christoph Friedrich Schmahl (1739-1814), made an instrument called the Tangentenflügel in which small staves of wood, moving vertically like a harpsichord jack, struck rather than plucked the strings. By striking the keys more forcefully, the volume of sound produced could be increased so the instrument had some dynamic possibilities. Later pairs replaced individual strings and a pedal mechanism allowed the player to vary the volume by changing whether the staves struck one or both of the strings. Other pedals raised dampers, to let the sound ring on even after the key had been released by the player, or were used to reproduce the 'harp' effect found on harpsichords when extra damping is given to the strings to produce a pizzicato. These then were the early uses to which keyboard makers put pedals in order to increase the dynamic and tonal capabilites of their instruments. We know that Mozart thought highly of Späth's Tangentenflügel before he became acquainted with the Piano forte of Johann Andreas Stein (1728-92), one of the finest maker of organs, harpsichords, clavichords and pianos of the 18th century. Stein's instruments incorporated levers operated by the player's knee rather than by the player's feet. Stein's daughter Nannete, and her husband Andreas Streicher, established one of the most important Viennese piano-making firms. It was the Streicher's personal friendship with Beethoven that encouraged Beethoven to use the Streicher instruments even after he came into contact with instruments made by Erard, one made for Haydn in 1801 and the second given to Beethoven himself in August 1803. By this time all pianos were fitted with foot operated pedals and the knee lever had passed into history. Grand Piano (1796) | more information... Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Piano designed by John Broadwood and Son, English, active 1795-1808 Cameos and medallions designed by Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795) Case decoration by Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) Veneered case of satinwood, tulipwood, and purpleheart with Wedgwood cameos and medallions Piano: 97 7/8 x 43 7/8 x 35 7/8 in. (248.7 x 111.5 x 91.2 cm) Detail of lilac Wedgwood medallion: c. 3 in. across (7.6 cm) George Alfred Cluett Collection, given by Florence Cluett Chambers Acquired in 1985 The article below is taken from The Pedal and Pedalling on the Modern Piano and from a number of other resources about pedalling on the piano. Upon inspection, the modern concert grand piano will confront you with three piston-like contraptions that extend downwards from the main body of the instrument. Don’t panic. Contrary to the misguided belief of many a first-time observer, the correct operation of these ‘pedals’ does not involve the synchronized use of three limbs. The simultaneous operation of a clutch, brake, and accelerator would probably cause just as much damage. So What Do They Do? Quite simply, a piano pedal is a lever capable of a short ‘down-up’ movement and is operated by the foot.1 Each of the three pedals has a different function. The right-most, when depressed, moves a damping mechanism away from the strings inside the piano, thus allowing any notes played to have their full duration even though the finger(s) have been removed from the keys. For this reason it is known as the sustain pedal but, as the most important and frequently used of the three, is more simply referred to as....the pedal. A (Thankfully) Brief History of the Pedal It was introduced by the Englishman John Broadwood (of Broadwood Pianos fame) in 1784. Before John came along however, the position of the damping mechanism was regulated by a device placed directly under the keyboard. Naturally, the use of this particular pedalling facility was somewhat restrictive, as it could only be operated by the player’s knee - altogether a marketing ploy aimed at either child prodigies such as Mozart, or midgets. Once repositioned though, the pedal became all the rage. Mozart was the first composer to use the odd pedal marking here and there, but it was in fact Beethoven who, through meticulous indications in his piano works, considered the effect of the pedal to be an integral part of his sound world. The composers of the subsequent ‘Romantic’ era followed his train of thought, using the pedal imaginatively in order to expand the piano’s tonal palette. Some even paused to leave meaningful quotations for the sake of posterity, as did Anton Rubinstein when he romanticized about the pedal being ‘the soul of the piano’. Busoni waxed lyrical about ‘the moonlight streaming down a landscape’. The great Franz Liszt even said that, without the pedal, the piano would be some kind of hackbrett. (What?!) 2 The piano music of Debussy and Ravel would be unimaginable without the use of the pedal, as it allowed them to translate into musical terms the aesthetics of their painter-counterparts: the Impressionists. The importance of the sustain pedal to the exploration of the resonances and sonorities of the piano has remained so ever since.3 At about the same time as Debussy and Ravel’s creative use of the sustain pedal, Ragtime pianists in New Orleans were finding it handy for holding on to an ‘oom’ while they got to a ‘pah’. OK, So How Does It Help? The late Hungarian-born pianist Louis Kentner believed that proper use of the sustain pedal constitutes about half of what we call ‘good tone’ on the piano. A pianist with a ‘good tone’, in other words, is able to produce a pleasing sound with the instrument. What he/she does with their right foot is just as important as what they do with their hands the individual ways of using the sustain pedal differ so greatly from artist to artist even if they may share the same level of pianistic skill, or indeed even the same piano! So Why Is This? In a word: timing. One can employ the sustain pedal in three different ways in relation to how one produces a sound on the keyboard. The pedal may be used: Before the sound (known as anticipated pedalling) Simultaneously with the sound; or After the sound. (known as syncopated pedalling) Timing plays an especially crucial role4 when this type of pedalling is to help produce piano-playing of good clarity, and it is the vital time-lapse between key-depression and pedal-depression throughout a simple sequence of chords which controls this clarity. Get it wrong, and the sounds of one chord will ooze inevitably into the next, creating the musical equivalent of a water-logged fruit trifle. What About The Other Two? A long time ago, certain over-zealous American piano makers appalled discerning music lovers by enriching their pianos with pedals that operated attached cymbals, drums and rude-sounding wind machines. Mercifully, history saw to it that these contraptions fell bumpily by the wayside. The only additional pedals that have remained until today are the una corda and sostenuto pedals. The Una Corda Pedal It is probably worth mentioning at this point that not all pianos have three pedals. The majority of grand pianos possess indeed all three, but others (including the small ‘upright’ pianos) offer two pedals which will be the sustain and una corda types. The latter, and left-most, controls a mechanism which works in two different ways depending on the type of piano. In grand pianos, the depression of this pedal will move the whole set of ‘hammers’ (the small mallet-like things wrapped up in felt) very slightly sideways so as to leave unstruck one out of every three strings for each note, hence the name una corda, Italian for ‘one string’.5 On upright pianos, the whole set of hammers is moved closer to the strings so that the force of their blow is diminished. The resulting sound in both cases, upon depression of a key, is a somewhat muted sound and consequently this pedal also bears the name: the soft pedal. And Finally the Doohickey in the Middle Back to grand pianos. Located in between the soft and sustain pedals is a handy little gadget that can offer hours of amusement (well, alright, maybe only a few minutes until you figure out what it does.). Introduced by Steinway and perfected in 1874, it is known as the sostenuto pedal and enables the pianist to make (within limits) a selection as to the notes he/she wishes to sustain. In order to ensure success, it can only be depressed after the keys themselves have been depressed. The process is as follows: Choose a note or chord that you want to sustain Play it While the key(s) is/are depressed, press down on the sostenuto pedal with your left foot Let go of the note(s) See how they still sound! but....that’s not all. While these notes still sound you can play any other notes on the piano, and they WILL NOT sustain. OK Then, Does It Have A Useful Purpose? Well, I’m told that the sostenuto pedal is absolutely vital for accompanying vocalists in the Flenderyap Songs of the Brumtypipe People by the late Grong composer Hulkan M.Ruden Voos III. Apart from that, certain solo piano compositions by contemporary earth composers require the occasional dab of third pedal.... What’s With These Confusing Names? Misnomers abound when discussing the piano and its pedals. For starters, the sustain pedal also bears the confusing name of loud pedal, even though it is also used for soft passages. If we’re going to be really pedantic, the use of the term ‘sustain’ is also dubious the undamped vibration of a string is, in reality, it’s natural state, and since the sustain pedal curtails the length of this natural state (i.e. shortening the tone instead of lengthening it), it’s actually doing the absolute opposite of sustaining anything. (I sense I may have just lost you?) Perhaps it should simply and more universally be known as the damper pedal? The una corda or 'one string' pedal doesn’t, in actual fact, make each hammer strike only one string out of three more precisely, it makes every hammer AVOID a string, each one striking the remaining two strings out of three.? And finally, regarding the middle pedal (just to make you wish you’d never visited this entry): sostenuto is Italian for ‘sustain’. The Right Way To Do It Just so that your pedal technique is au fait: Keep your heel on the ground when using the pedal, and move it with the tip of you toe so that your whole foot acts as a pivot, so to speak. This is essential for good control, and to being able to vary the depth to which the pedal is depressed, an aspect that also has influence upon the clarity of sound produced. The Wrong Way To Do It Don’t kick it. Don’t use it to beat time. Don’t use it for ragtime foot-stomping (get a fiddle-player to stomp for you). The Squeaky Pedal There is nothing quite as infuriating as a noisy pedal, or worse: one that, just like a lonely mouse, squeaks whenever depressed (pardon the pun). Usual form is to administer a little lubricant directly, or call a piano technician. All the mouse will need is a little love and attention. Notes 1 foot-operated levers also exist on kettledrums, pipe organs, harpsichords, harps, and sewing machines of the prehistoric era. 2 German for ‘chopping board’ - [comment by Dr. Blood: actually Hackbrett is the German name for the hammered dulcimer] 3 A bit of acoustics jargon here: The harmonics of the strings sounded are enriched by the sympathetic resonance of those derived from other freely vibrating strings, resulting in a fuller sound, or what most simply describe as a ‘glow’ to the tone of the instrument. This is of course an exclusively acoustical phenomenon - if you’ve ever wondered why the ‘piano’ sound on a synthesizer doesn’t sound like the real McCoy, this is the reason. 4 specially especially crucial in concert halls when there is a high ‘reverberation component’ (a little more technical fodder for you ‘acoustics aficionados’ out there) 5 the modern piano has one string for a few of the lowest notes, two for the middle register notes, and three strings for the highest notes, on account of the decrease in resonance of the shorter strings. The Pedal in Practice Although it was Beethoven who first made significant use of the pedal in performance and in his piano compositions, it was pieces like the piano nocturne or "night piece", a form inherited from the Irish composer John Field (1782-1837) and to which Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849) brought the melodic inspiration he drew from Italian opera (particularly Bellini) and his own unique harmonic idiom, where the possibilities provided by the pedal were to be fully explored. The graceful melody of the D-flat major Nocturne Op. 27, no. 2, 1835, stated three times enhanced by thirds, sixths, fioriaturas (written embellishments) and intense chromaticism, uses surprising harmonic changes to add to the passionate climax; the subtle pedalling effects of the coda point towards the pianistic colours of Debussy. The art of pedalling was something Debussy felt strongly about as Eberhardt Klemm mentions in Claude Debussy - Piano Works, Vol. 5: Études : Concluding Remarks "Debussy's piano style of composition demands a cessation of damping spreading over bars, i.e. a depressing of the right pedal (sometimes indicated by several suspended short ties.) This does not mean that the sounds should be blurred. Thus Debussy warns against misuse of the pedal "which is mostly a means of covering up a technical deficiency." He does of course demand a finely differentiated pedal technique of the greatest virtuosity. Many a skilful pianist, who finds a hand free, will in some places silently depress keys and change pedals briefly in order thereby to exclude the continued vibration of disturbing tones. "The art of pedalling is a kind of breathing", wrote Debussy to Jacques Durand (1st September 1915). "This is what I observed in the case of Liszt when he permitted me to listen to him during his stay in Rome." In exceptional cases Debussy prescribes the use of the left pedal (Fr. pédale douce, pédale sourde or sourdine) or even of both pedals (les 2 Ped., les deux pédales). The fascination of the shift of keyboard and mechanics, which occurs in all degrees of volume (thus also in forte) in Debussy and still more in Ravel, consists in the alteration of the tonal colour. We do not, however, need to follow these instructions, if the shift occasions a too meagre and dull-sounding effect, as is the case with some older pianos. " John Tilbury discussing the piano music of Cornelius Cardew remarks that the pedal is being used to modulate piano tone. The precise aspects of sonority and resonance are sometimes indicated - in February Pieces, for example, where subtle modifications in the timbral quality of sustained sounds are introduced as they decay, the harmonics being altered after the initial attack through use of pedalling and of silently depressed keys. This goes straight to the heart of the characteristic resonance of the piano and the way it is actually heard and the role the pedal plays in the instrument's tonal and timbral response. The Digital Piano and Pedalling Dr. Virginia Houser, Kansas State University, in her article entitled Do you want an elementary student to have a digital keyboard for home practice? admits that digital keyboards have come a long, long way in recent years. Their sounds are amazingly close to that of a piano; after all, many use actual sound samples from acoustic grand pianos. They stay in tune. They are portable. They generally cost less than a piano. The most expensive ones offer touch-sensitive (also called velocity-sensitive) and weighted wooden keys quite similar to an acoustic piano. Digital pianos have one to three pedals which simulate those on an acoustic. They can also be equipped with headphones which allow private practice. Most even offer instrumental sounds and percussion effects which titillate many students. Even with all the digital pluses, however, she prefer a student's primary practice instrument be a piano. Because of all those marvelous inner mechanical workings, the performer must engage with the instrument to create sound and effects in a way not possible on a digital instrument. There is also an unreproducible, resonant amplification resulting from vibrating strings and wood. Last but not least, subtleties in pedalling are all but impossible with an electronic instrument." Table of Dynamic Markings :: We set out below signs and marks that set or change the dynamic level during a piece of music. In some case, the dynamic level is related to the mood; in other cases the mark is much more direct. Table of More Common Dynamic Markings please refer to our music dictionary for other markings ff. fortissimo : very loud f. forte : loud mf. mezzo forte : moderately loud mp. mezzo piano : moderately soft p. piano : soft pp. pianissimo : very soft also ffff., fff., ppp., pppp. for greater dynamic range fp. forte immediately dropping to piano crescendo, cresc. increasingly powerful decrescendo, decresc. decreasingly powerful diminuendo. dim. decreasingly powerful narrow to wide: crescendo wide to narrow: diminuendo or decrescendo marcato, marc. marked or emphasised sf., sfz. sforzato, sforzando : forced sfp. sforzato or sforzando immediately dropping to piano fz. forza, forzando : forced, sudden accent rfz. rinforzando : reinforcing calando decreasing tone and speed incalzando increasing speed and tone con sordino (sordini) with the mute(s) dolcissimo, dolciss. very gently, very sweetly leggiero light, delicate pacato calm, quiet mancando, morendo, perdendosi, smorzando waning, dying away martellato hammered out mezza voce, sotto voce in an undertone risvegliato with increased animation senza sordini without mutes strepitoso noisy, boisterous tacet it is silent tutta forza as loud as possible una corda use the soft pedal on the piano Table of General Musical Markings :: We set out below a list of general musical markings that are commonly found in published music. Table of General Musical Markings some may be included in tables elsewhere in the Online music theory or in our music dictionary Italian a (Italian) for, at, in, etc. a cappella (Italian) for choral music without accompaniment a capriccio (Italian) in a humorous manner accelerando (accel.) (Italian) gradually getting faster ad libitum (Italian) as the performer wishes affettuoso (Italian) affectionate, with tender warmth agitato (Italian) agitated, excited alla (Italian) in the style of alla breve (Italian) the half note (minim) rather than the quarter note (crotchet) takes the beat allargando (Italian) growing broader amabile (Italian) sweet, amiable, lovable amoroso (Italian) loving ancora (Italian) again animato (Italian) with spirit a piacere (Italian) at the performer's discretion appassionato (Italian) impassioned arioso (Italian) a short solo in the style of an air arpeggio (Italian) the notes of a chord are played in succession rather than simultaneously assai (Italian) very ben, bene (Italian) well brillante (Italian) with brilliance or vivacity cadenza (Italian) a passage for solo instrument in free, improvisatory style calando (Italian) diminishing in dynamic and speed cambiare (Italian) to change cantabile (Italian) in a singing style chiuso (Italian) stopped, in horn playing col, colla (Italian) with the come (Italian) like, as comodo (Italian) comfortable, easy con (Italian) with con brio (Italian) with brilliance or vivacity con dolore (Italian) with sorrow con forza (Italian) with force or strength con fuoco (Italian) with fire con giusto (Italian) with taste, fitting mood and tempo con passione (Italian) with passion con spirito (Italian) with spirit coro (Italian) chorus crescendo (Italian) gradually get louder dal (Italian) from the decrescendo (Italian) gradually get softer decisivo (Italian) with decision delicato (Italian) delicately diminuendo (Italian) gradually get softer dolce (Italian) sweetly dolente (Italian) doleful, sorrowful doppio movimento (Italian) double the preceeding speed e, ed (Italian) and e poi (Italian) and then espressivo (Italian) expressive facilmente (Italian) easily, without strain feroce (Italian) ferocious fine (Italian) end, close furioso (Italian) furiously giocoso (Italian) gay, playful grandioso (Italian) grandly grazioso (Italian) graceful il, la (Italian) the impetuoso (Italian) in an energetic manner lacrimoso (Italian) tearfully lamentoso (Italian) in a mournful style largamente (Italian) in a dignified manner legato (Italian) smoothly leggiero (Italian) light and graceful lusingando (Italian) alluring, flattering ma (Italian) but maestoso (Italian) majestically mancando (Italian) dying away marcato (Italian) emphasized martellato (Italian) hammered stroke played with very short bows at the point marziale (Italian) march-like meno (Italian) less meno mosso (Italian) less movement, slower mesto (Italian) mournful, sad mezzo (Italian) half misterioso (Italian) mysteriously molto (Italian) much, very morendo (Italian) dying away and becoming slower nobilmente (Italian) nobly non (Italian) not ossia (Italian) or parlando (Italian) singing in speaking style parlante (Italian) singing in speaking style pateticamente (Italian) pathetically perdendosi (Italian) dying away and becoming slower pesante (Italian) heavy, weighting piacevole (Italian) agreeable piangevole (Italian) plaintively piu (Italian) more pizzicato (Italian) pluck the string with the finger placidamente (Italian) peacefully pochetto (Italian) very little poco (Italian) little, a little poco a poco (Italian) little by little poi (Italian) then pomposo (Italian) pompous quasi (Italian) almost rallentando (rall.) (Italian) gradually getting slower religioso (Italian) with devotion replica (Italian) repeat risoluto (Italian) resolutely ritardando (rit.) (Italian) gradually getting slower ritenuto (riten.) (Italian) suddenly slower, held back ritmico (Italian) rhythmical rubato (Italian) robbed time, speeding up and slowing down scherzando (Italian) playfully secco (Italian) dry, short sempre (Italian) always semplice (Italian) simple senza (Italian) without serioso (Italian) serious simili (Italian) the same sino al (Italian) up to the.. slargando (Italian) broadening slentando (Italian) getting slower smorzando (Italian) smother dynamic to nothing soave (Italian) suave, gentle solennemente (Italian) solemnly sonore (Italian) sound with full tone sordino (Italian) mute sostenuto (Italian) sustained sotto voce (Italian) with a barely audible sound spiccato (Italian) with a light bouncing motion of the bow spiritoso (Italian) lively, with spirit staccato (Italian) detached, short stentando (Italian) delaying, retarding strepitoso (Italian) noisy stringendo (Italian) quickening subito (Italian) suddenly sul (Italian) on the.. suono (Italian) sound, tone tanto (Italian) so much tempo primo (Italian) return to original time tempo rubato (Italian) robbed time teneramente (Italian) tenderly tenuto (Italian) held, sustained tessitura (Italian) average range of a vocal part tosto (Italian) rather tranquillo (Italian) tranquil, quiet, calm tremolo (Italian) a quick reiteration of the same tone on a string instrument troppo (Italian) too much tutti (Italian) all un poco (Italian) a little vibrato (Italian) slight change of pitch on same note vigoroso (Italian) vigorous, strong vivo (Italian) lively German aber (German) but ausdrucksvoll (German) with expression beruhigen (German) to calm, to quiet bewegt (German) agitated bewegter (German) more agitated daher (German) from there dämpfer (German) mute drängend (German) pressing on einleiten (German) to lead into erschütterung (German) a violent shaking, deep emotion etwas (German) somewhat, rather flüchtig (German) fleeting, transient frei (German) free ganz (German) entirely, altogether gebrochen (German) broken gedehnt (German) held back gemächlich (German) comfortable geschlagen (German) struck gesprochen (German) spoken gesteigert (German) intensified gestopft (German) stopped note by placing the hand in the bell of the horn gewöhnlich (German) usual, customary gleichmässig (German) equal, symmetrical halbe (German) half halt (German) stop, hold hauptstimme (German) most important voice in the phrase hauptzeitmass (German) original tempo heftiger (German) more passionate, violent hervortretend (German) prominently hörbar (German) audible immer (German) always klangvoll (German) sonorous, full-sounding klingen lassen (German) allow to sound kräftig (German) strong, forceful kurz (German) short lebhaft (German) lively leidenschaftlich (German) passionate mit (German) with nebenstimme (German) the second most important voice in the phrase nehmen (German) to take neue (German) new nicht (German) not noch (German) still, yet ohne (German) without plötzlich (German) suddenly ruhig (German) calm schleppend (German) dragging schon (German) already schwerer (German) heavier, more difficult schwermütig (German) dejected, sad sehr (German) very sprechstimme (German) speaking voice trauernd (German) mournfully übertönend (German) drowning out unterbrechung (German) interruption, suspension verhalten (German) restrained, held back verklingen lassen (German) let die away verzweiflungsvoll (German) full of despair vorwärts (German) forward, onward weg (German) away, beyond wieder (German) again wie oben (German) as above, as before zart (German) tenderly, delicately ziemlich (German) suitable, fitting zurückhaltend (German) slowing in speed zurückkehrend zum (German) return to.. French bien (French) very, well come (French) like détaché (French) detached doux (French) soft, light echoton (French) with an echo éclatant (French) sparkling, brilliant encore (French) again en dehors (French) outside, emphasized en fusée (French) dissolving in et (French) and fois (French) times, as in number of laissez vibrer (French) let vibrate lié (French) tied main (French) hand (droite right; gauche left) marqué (French) marked, with emphasis pause (French) pause, rest peu (French) little plus (French) more sans (French) without seulement (French) only sombre (French) somber, dark son (French) sound sourdine (French) mute soutenu (French) held, sustained sur (French) over, on très (French) very tristement (French) sadly unison (unis.) (French) same pitches played by several instruments